I love watching PBB

Pinoy Big Brother.

-is one of my favorite shows in ABS_CBN, promise. Pinoy Big Brother Double Up, I like Melissa and Jason very much. mh...I like also the twins, Toffi and Kenny, JM and JP. Pero wala na sila napalabas na, kasi naman si Princess. haha just kidding. But I hate Princess, because she was so maldita. mhf.. by the way, this is only my comments. Good Luck PBB and ABS-CBN.

Jokes

http://www.pinoyjokes.net/

Muli Callalily

Muli Callalily

Nakakunot na naman ang noo
nagsisigawan na naman tayo
mga damdamin ay nasasaktan
pwede na ba natin ?tong tigilan?

[chorus]
sana bukas magkita na tayong muli
hindi na sasayangin ang bawat sandali
magyayakapan, tapos na ang iyakan
magiging maayos na muli ang lahat

hindi na naman ako pinapansin
tinataboy sa tuwing naglalambing
hindi na alam kung sino ang tama o mali
bigla mo na lamang akong pinapauwi
sana bukas magkita na tayong muli
hindi na sasayangin ang bawat sandali
magyayakapan, tapos na ang iyakan
magiging maayos na muli ang lahat

[bridge]
wag na tayo magpanggap
alam kong pareho natin ?tong di matatanggap
halika na dito sa aking tabi
at sabihin na di kabibitaw
hanggang sa huling sandali

sana bukas magkita na tayong muli
hindi na sasayangin ang bawat sandali
magyayakapan, tapos na ang iyakan
magiging maayos na muli ang lahat

Sa Iyo by sarah geronimo

Sa Iyo by sarah geronimo

Hindi ko inisip ako'y magmamahal pa
Ikaw lamang sinta
Sa akin ang magbabago pala

Refrain:
Wala nang mahihiling pa
Wala nang hihigit pa

Chorus:
Sa iyo ang pag-ibig ko
Sa iyo napako ang puso
Sa iyo parang langit ang paligid ko
Sa iyo alay ang awit ko

Chorus II:
Sa iyo ang pag-ibig ko
Sa iyo napako ang puso
Sa iyo parang langit ang paligid ko
Sa iyo sana ay ibigin mo

Hindi ko akalang sa buhay ko
Darating ka
Hindi ko ninais na ako'y
Muling iibig pa

Refrain

Chorus

Chorus II

Refrain

Chorus

Chorus II

Sana ay ibigin mo
Sana ay ibigin mo

A smile in your heart sandara park

A smile in your heart

I had a feeling
That your holding my heart
And i know that it is true
You wouldn't let it be broken apa apaD
'coz it's much to dear to you
Forever we'll be together
No one can break us apart
For our love will truly be
A wonderful smile in your heart

When the night comes
And i'm keeping your heart
How i feel so much more secure
You wouldn't let me close my eyes
So i can see you through and through

You're a sweet tender lover
We are so much in love
I'm not afraid when you're far away
Just give me a smile in your heart...

You brighten my day
Showin' me my direction
You're comin' to me
And givin' me inspiration
How can i ask for more
From you my dear
Maybe just a smile in your heart

I'm always dreamin'
Of being in love
But now i know that this is true
Since you came into my life
It's true love that i had found

I pray that you wouldn't leave me
Whatever may come along
But if you do i won't feel so bad
Just give me a smile in your heart...

You brighten my day
Showin' me my direction
You're comin' to me
And givin' me inspiration
How can i ask for more
From you my dear
Maybe just a smile in your
(maybe just a smile in your heart)

You brighten my day
Showin' me my direction
You're comin' to me
And givin' me inspiration
How can i ask for more
From you my dear
Maybe just a smile in your heart

Give me a smile in your heart

Akala mo by aiza

Akala mo

Akala mo hindi ko nakita
Maligaya ka 'pag ako ay masaya
Akala mo hindi ko naisip
Na kasama ako sa iyong panaginip
Bawat sabihin ko
Alam ko nakikinig ka
Akala mo siguro hindi ko nakita

Akala mo hindi ko pansin
Akala mo hindi ko alam
Mahal mo nga ako kahit hindi mo man sabihin
Akala mo hindi ko napansin

Akala mo hindi ko naririnig
Tibok ng puso mo't kaba ng dibdib
Akala Mo hindi ko nadarama
Na kasama ako sa lungkot at saya

Kapag kailangan kita
Dumarating ka
Akala mo siguro hindi ko nakita

Akala mo hindi ko pansin
Akala mo hindi ko alam
Mahal mo nga ako kahit hindi mo man sabihin

Akala mo hindi ko pansin
Akala mo hindi ko alam
Mahal mo nga ako kahit hindi mo man sabihin

Akala mo hindi ko napansin
Akala mo gano'n lang yon
Alam ko 'yon kahit noon
Akala mo hindi ko napansin

Forever is not enough by Sarah Geronimo

Forever is not enough

If I would have to live my life again
I'd stay in love with you the way I've been
Your love is something no one ever can replace
I can't imagine life with someone else
I promise, I will share my life with you
Forever may not be enough it's true
My heart is filled with so much love
I feel for you
No words can say how much I love you so

And if forever's not enough for me to love you
I'd spend another lifetime baby,
If you ask me to
There's nothing I won't do
Forever's not enough for me to love you so

They say tomorrow seems so far away,
And now we see that everything can change
My love for you gets stronger as tomorrow comes
I know this love will stand
In the test of time

And if forever's not enough for me to love you
I'd spend another lifetime baby,
If you ask me to
There's nothing I won't do
Forever's not enough for me to love you so

For you, there's nothing I can't do
And never will I ever go
Forever's not enough to love you so
But if forever ends one day
I promise you
I'll stay to show you
That my love will never end...

And if forever's not enough for me to love you
I'd spend another lifetime baby,
If you ask me to
There's nothing I won't do
Forever's not enough to love you so

And if forever's not enough for me to love you
I'd spend another lifetime baby,
If you ask me to
There's nothing I won't do

Poem "Is He the One?"

Is He the One?

By: LC16

My heart beats so fast

As I remember the past

I thought he’s the one,

But then he’s gone.

He broke my heart,

And left me in the dark

Until you came…

And released all my pain.

You bring out the best in me,

That’s why I’m happy can’t you see?

Every time that you’re at my side,
I keep on thinking that you’re

One of a kind….

Then you proved to me….

That you are my DESTINY…...

Crushes

Crushes

Crushes are a manifestation of the adolescent’s search for a person whose have the quality she or he admires. Crushes can be range from basketball stars, super stars, pop singers, Hollywood stars, dj, vj, even in the kid or boys or girls next door and a classmates or schoolmates.

Often, crushes develop because “I like his eyes”, “She’s so cute and pretty”, “ He’s so handsome and tall”, “ I like the way he carries his/her clothes”, “I like the way she/he moves”, “He is his team’s highest pointer” and so on….

Crushes usually have a short life span of a one-hour or three, a few days or week or a few months and even a year he/she is still one of your crushes. An old crush may disappear, and a new crush appears or surfaces with hardly any warning or obvious reason. It is also possible for an adolescent to have several crushes at the same time.

Crushes are a growing attraction to the opposite sex, manifestations of the adolescent’s changing character or values, and searching for identity. It is normal to adolescents.

Quotes 3

It's Better

It's better to meet the person who will truly love you later than to meet someone now, who promises to love you but sooner or later.. leave you forever.

No one

No one is afraid of heights, they're afraid of the fall....

No one is afraid to play, they're afraid to lose....

No one is afraid of the dark, they're afraid of 'whats in it'...

No one is afraid to say I love you, they're afraid of the response..

When Somebody

When Somebody is treating you somewhat special.....

don't fall for that feeling right away....

Coz itz painful when you start to crave for that feeling...

Not knowning itz just his nature. :c

Quotes 2

A hurting heart

If you're hurting, get on the path to healing. Build your strength and move towards your hopes. The answers are there to search for and seek out.

A hurting heart is a loving heart. Don't hold back on love just because you've been hurt before. What matters is that you have loved.

A woman

A woman is a work of all a masterpiece. Be proud of who you are. There is something in you and you're life that is worth sharing to the world.

Shoes and clothes don't make the woman. It is her charm wisdom and confidence that make her stand out from the crowd.

Laugh

Don't take life to seriously, always find time to laugh. Remember that laughter add not only years to your life but add more life to your years.

You can't

You can't make people love you-- we all know that. But we can love our selves the way nobody else can and that's the most wonderful thing!!

You are original an individual, a masterpiece. Celebrate that. Don't let your uniqueness make you shy. Every star is important to the sky.

Quotes

Why?

Why does you only see me when your sad, when need advice, when you that know what to do but when everythings alright, it seems like you never met me at all, but still i'm here waitin' for you to be near.

You may"

You may have someone in your mind, someone in your heart, someone in your life but i will be your someone men you have no one.

Ako

It feels sad when we express our feelings to the person we love but hold back coz' they have chosen another, then wen they get hard, we can only whisper. "ako never kita pababayaan".

Love

Love is a deepp word with a deep responsibility. I don't just treasure love and value them as i value life so when the time can't i say i love you, I please you to takecake fit coz' its = saying your my life.

The Only

The only wealth I have are the people around me that I really call special and you are one of them. So plz stay with me so that people will know how rich I am.

How to Create a Database

How to Create a Database

1. Choose File, then click New

2. Click the New button from the Toolbar

3. Type your Database name in the open Filename Dialog Box

4. Click Create button; your Database Name appears on screen which is completely blank at this point.

How to Create a Table Using the Design View

1. In the Database window, click Tables Tab.

2. choose New, then click the Design View option. In the Design View Dialog box, create details of your table.

3. Click OK.

4. In the fieldname column of the Design View, enter the first field name

5. Press the Tab or the Enter Key to move the insertion point to the next column which is Data Type.

6.Click the down arrow button to view the list of data types available for defining a field.

7. Press the Tab key again to move the insertion point to the next column.

8. Define all the fields for your table. Click the Table View button from the Toolbar.

9. Save your new table, the Access display the message:

Save As

Save Table 'Table4' To:

OK

CANCEL

As

10. Click Yes, then type the filename in the Save As Dialog Box

11. Click the Yes Button to create a primary key for your table.

Five Methods to Create a Table

Five Methods to Create a Table

Method

Design - In Design View, specify the fields, data type for each Field, assign size, and assign the primary key.

Datasheet - Once you created a table. you can start viewing and entering data right away; Access automatically assigns the field type based on the kind of information you just entered.

Table Wizard - Using the Table Wizard, allows you to select fields from sample table appropriate for the type database you created.

Importing a Table - This means that all the field names and data types are retained with the imported data.

Linking a Table - It is the process wherein the table data is retrieved from a table of another database.

What is Microsoft Access?

What is Microsoft Access?

-is a relational database program that provides you the:

• Limitless storage amount of information

• Organized information in a manner that it makes sense on how you work

• Create forms for easier ways to enter information

• Produce meaningful and insightful reports that can combine data with other applications.

Table Datasheet View

Table Datasheet View is like using Microsoft Excel wherein data is entered in row and column format. Each row represents a single record of data. When you create a new table, a blank Table Datasheet view window appears. Table Datasheet View provides a spreadsheet with 20 columns and 30 rows. Each column has a column header or also known as column selector at the top of the column. The column header displays the name of the field that the column represents. The Default field names are Field1, Field2, and so on. Field names should describe the property that will be stored in the field (Last Name, Address, Phone, and so on.)

How to Create a Table

How to Create a Table

You need to create tables after creating a database file. There are several ways to create a new table: in Design View, Datasheet View, using Table Wizard, or importing data from another program, like Microsoft Excel; follow these steps:

• Specify the field for the table

• Determine the data type for each field

• Determine the field size (for text and number field only)

• Assign the Primary Key

• Save and name the table

The Field Properties

The Field Properties

After creating field name and data type, you can add description for each field in your table. This is optional, but it helps your table for easy understanding. It provides formatting options you can set. The options changes depend on their respective field type.

• Field Size it limits the text fields to a specific number of characters; Number fields to a specific range of values.

• Format it assigns a specific display format to Text and Date/Time fields such as:

02/24/91 or Friday, February 24, 1991

• Decimal Places it sets the number of decimal places displayed in Number and Currency like 5.75

• Input Mask specifies formatting characters like dashes in phone-number field

• Caption it supplies a label to be used in forms and reports instead of the field name.

• Validation Rule specifies a rule that will validate entries I a field

• Validation Text displays the message in relation to the validation of rule.

Terms to Remember:

Terms to Remember:

• Datasheet View creates the table structure based on the data entered.

• Design View creates a table in design mode, where fields are added and all Properties are specified.

• Table Wizard guides you through creating a table based on built –in templates.

• Link Table Wizard adds a link to a table in another database on your computer (or across the world).

Data Types

Data Types

♦ Text • A text field contains up to 255 characters. It is use to store alphanumeric characters for entering text numbers, symbols and letters.

♦Memo

• A memo field contains up to 64,000 characters. It is use to store long text fields.

♦Number

• It performs mathematical calculations, numeric data in the form of integer, and is used for entering numbers. + and – sign, or decimal point

♦Date/Time

• It is used to store dated and times; this field is from 100 to 2000 years

♦Currency

• The numbers are formatted for an amount of money, Never use a Number data types for monetary values because it prevents rounding off numbers during calculations.

♦AutoNumber• A special numeric data type that can be used for primary key fields. Access automatically inserts the next number either in the sequence or in a random number when a data record is created.

♦Yes/No

• It contains one of two values: True/False, Yes/No, On/Off format. This format is used depending on what is needed to represent a particular field

♦OLE Object

• Links to another Database or file used to create object like MS Excel or Word document that can be OLE objects. The data in the field can either linked to or embedded in the Access table.

♦Hyperlink

• Access links the user to store addresses to Web documents, network files, and local files.

♦Look Up Wizard

• Enables you to create a list , to select a value from another table or predefined list of values.

The Fields and the Data Types

The Fields and the Data Types

1. To add new field, one must provide a name to the field. A Field name which consists of spaces, letters or numbers used descriptive name for easy understanding.

2. After deciding what specific field name to use, consider the following:

• Know the kind of value you allow in the field

• Specify the storage space allotted in the field

• The types of operations to be performed on the values of certain field

• Are the values in field can be indexed or sorted

Strategies in Planning a Database

Strategies in Planning a Database

Steps in Planning a Database

1. Determine the purpose of your database.

• Know the information you want for your database and determine what subjects you need to store facts about (the tables) and what facts you need to store about each subject (the fields in the tables).

• Discuss your designed database to the person who will use it. Sketch out the reports you want to produce, and gather the forms you currently use to record you data.

2. Determine the tables you need in the database.

• The information gathered should be analyzed

Example: Information for Students’ Admission

Student no., student name, address, course, year/section, adviser

1232 Montana, Miley Jaguar St. Marikina City BS ComSci IV-B Mrs. Patria Vazques

1233 Guzman, Shaynee Pete St. Angeles City BS Psycho II-A Mr. Lobo Cruz

For this example, you may design your table and name it as menu table like the student information, year and section and its adviser. The above example is just an example only.

• Be sure that the table should not duplicate any information. Each table should contain information about one subject and know what field is need in the table.

3. Identify fields with unique values. In designation of a primary key, uniqueness must be guarantee.

Primary key is a field or a set of fields that identifies individual records in a unique way.

4. Re-examine what fields will go into your database. Define the Data type and properties so that the fields form an accurate description of types of data needed in the database.

Designing a Database

Designing a Database

The Database Objects

• Table a collection of stored data that is organize into fields. It consists of organized data into column and rows.

Record – a row represents a set of information.

Field – a column represents a specific of information.

• Query it filters a database to change, view, and analyze records in different ways to meet specific criteria used to retrieve a specific group of record from a table.

Dynaset is the resulted output.

• Form it is where you can enter a new record, study existing data, view data from a table or a query, or simply print information or any combination of these tasks.

• Report it is a carefully organized presentation of data from a table of query. It can show group of data with subtotals and totals from a summary of information from a table or query. One can print the data in acceptable manner, which is easier to read using report, but you cannot edit data in it.

Data Types Processing Files

Data Types Processing Files

• Master File, a file consists of permanent or semi-permanent data consolidated for referencing and updating. It updated to reflect the status of the data contents like Stock Master File, Payroll Master File and others.

• Work File a temporary file used in sorting of immediate data for further processing.

• Transaction File a file that contains source data or transaction data about recorded events used to update the master file.

Example:

Sales transaction file used to update the stock master file

• Security or Backup File a backup copy of a file to safeguard against damaged or loss of current, versions.

• Transition File a temporary file created during processing for a specific use like customer details extracted from master and transaction files to form a statement detailed file. It is use for printing of monthly customer statements.

• Audit File a particular type of transactions file that enables the auditor to check the correct functioning of computer-based procedures by keeping a copy of all transactions that cause permanent files to be changed.

Ways to Retrieve Information

Ways to Retrieve Information

To retrieve information is one of the file processing methods, which aim to produce accurate and useful information.
• Retrieval it is the act of transferring a record from secondary storage to main memory to access data within a fields
• Insertion it is the process of adding a new record to an existing files
• Writing it is the process of transferring records from main memory to secondary storage
• Updating it makes changes to the contents of a record maintained on a file to reflect its new status
• Merging it could be a record merging or a file merging. It is a combination of two or more files in same sequence into a single output file
• Sorting it is the act of rearranging the records in a file to produce ordered reports
• Searching to satisfy specific criteria that involves looking for records with a certain key value
• Matching is to compare two or more records against other records in order to ensure that there is a complete set of records for each key. Mismatch records highlighted for subsequent action.

The File Organization

The File Organization

What is a File Organization?

File organization is a physical arrangement of data using storage devices such as magnetic tapes or discs, and organized in different ways and different methods of accessing its records.


Types of Files

• System Files, It is an operating system program where data files holds data that is related to applications software; such as memo you typed using word processing software.
-is used to start the computer system, and provides services. It controls software and files as you proceed. It creates a command that invokes the program name if you need to use the operating system files directly.
• Application Software Files, It is software needed for a specific application such as word processing. Data files uses applications supply input data, or use to store files you created.
• Data Files are the input data created in school or company; but most users deal with output data files mostly considered as personal data files on diskettes wherein the user has an exclusive control to use, to delete, or do what he wants.

Components of database Environment

Components of database Environment

1.Application Programs, It is used to create and maintain the database that provides information to its users.
2.Repository, It contains all screen and report formats, all data information, and definition of other organizations, and systems components which is the centralized knowledge base.
3.User Interface, These are languages, menu, and other facilities wherein the users interact with various system components.
4.Database Management System (DBMS), a commercial program that is used to create and maintain the database. It provides information to the users.
5.System Developers, These persons design and develop new applications program such as programmers and system analysts.
6.Data Administrators, Persons who are responsible for the overall information from it.
7.End Users, These are the persons within the organization who operate and modify the data in the database, and who request or receive information from it.

Disadvantage of Database System

Disadvantage of Database System

Access. This refers to users who have improper access to a database. The employees must trained to the correct ways of using database management system, especially in a large organization.
Expense. It is usually expensive to set up and maintain a database. The employees must trained to use the database properly.
Excess. In an organization that carries more data than expected, it is theoretically possible for a database to carry unsuitable data.

Importance of Database System

Importance of Database System

1.Data Independence is a separation of data from the application programs another data. The organized data can be changed into important applications of processed data.
2.Sharing Data allows all the authorized users in an organization to share its data. It provides the user view of data required to make a decision or perform some functions without making the users aware of the overall complexity of the database.
3.Integrated Data is considered integrated for any item of data that can be used to satisfy an inquiry or a report. This is related to the reduced redundancy advantage, for data can be retrieved from any place in the database.
4.Data Accessibility and Responsiveness provides multiple retrieval parts to each item of data, provides the user flexibility in locating and retrieving data than with data files. It results to easily retrieved better information
5.Uniformed Security, Privacy and Integrated Controls improves the data protection, centralized control and standard procedures that provide dispersed data file system. The database will be vulnerable than conventional files which are exposed to more users if proper controls are not applied.
6.Reduced Redundancy Data carried in separate files that tend to repeat the same data over and over, that information appears at least only once.

Functions of Database Management System

Functions of Database Management System

• Protects data against unauthorized access
• Safeguarding data against corruption
• Provides immediate recovery and restart facilities when a hardware/software failed
• Position frequently used data in accessible form

Objectives of Database

Objectives of Database

• Data Integrity with the use of database, inconsistency in file duplication when changes are made to data could be solved by storing in one place, and allowing each application to be accessed.
• Data Integration are maintained links between data and data centralization in order to meet its objectives. It is possible ton easily access data records using a wide variety of search keys. This will lessen the cost for new applications where multiple references are made to the same data.
• Data Independence changes an organized data without the need to reprogram and can be modified without reorganization of data.

DBMS(Database Management System

What is a Database?

A Database is a collection of related information about a subject organized in a useful manner. It is a base of foundation for procedures such as retrieving information, drawing conclusions, and decision-making when information is presented and stored in cjavascript:void(0)olumns and rows.

• is a computer system organized for the systematic management of large collection of information that integrated the database and provides different views to different users.
• It includes techniques in building up a file that produces data for inquiry and reporting.

Examples of Database:
Dictionary Telephone
Directory Bank accounts
Student Records Personnel
Records Inventories
Cookbook
Personal File
Supplies
Tax Records

continuation...Theater music1

continuation...Theater music

The German composer Kurt Weill's score for Der Silbersee (1933; The Silver Sea) was the last major musical contribution to a serious play requiring a full orchestra and chorus. Thereafter, for economic reasons, the dramatic theatre had to equip itself with small-group music or prerecorded tapes. The orchestra and chorus became the prerogative of stage musicals and films. The more these were commercially debased the more they came to rely heavily on the clichés of 19th-century music, to the exclusion of newer musical developments.

Producers of stage musicals, the choreographers of dance, and the directors of drama need to be wary of the properties of music. It is more demanding of attention than is often thought, and its use should ideally be confined to circumstances where it can provide something that none of the other theatrical elements can offer. The more its qualities are understood and respected, the better it can be guided to an effective theatrical purpose.

continuation...Theater music

continuation...Theater music

In the West, the concept of music as an intellectual experience for its own sake emerged only in the second half of the 18th century. Theatrical music is variously related to something other than itself, whether as an enrichment of words (as in operetta), a factor in structure and mood (ballet), or an intensification of situation and feeling (as in incidental music for plays and films).

In some instances music is dominant, in some it is subservient, and in operetta or stage musical the emphasis alternates between speech, song, and dance. In opera and spoken drama, in which words are wholly sung or spoken, a convention once set is consistently sustained and thereby creates its own kind of reality. The constant change of focus in operetta and musical, from music to speech and back again, emphasizes the artificiality of the illusion they seek to create.

The classical mainstream of theatre music in the West extends from the mid-17th century to the 1930s, and the instances of drama and music meeting on an equal level of imagination are relatively few. More frequently great music was lavished on weak or corrupt theatre, or great drama was embellished with indifferent music. From the early 20th century new dramatic developments were seldom directly matched in music. A German-Italian composer,Ferrucio Busoni, wrote in 1906:

The greater part of modern theatre music suffers from the mistake of seeking to repeat the scenes passing on the stage, instead of fulfilling its own proper mission of interpreting the attitudes of the persons represented.

ence.

Theatre music

Theatre music

Any music designed to form part of a dramatic performance, as, for example, a ballet, stage play, motion picture, or television program. Included are the European operetta and its American form, the musical.

Music as an art of the theatre has its roots in primitive ritual and ceremony and its branches in every modern means of theatrical presentation. Its functions are as varied as the forms require and range from being the primary reason for performance, as in opera, to mere noise, filling a vacuum in imagination for some screen and stage presentations.

Theatre music is all music composed to govern, enhance, or support a theatrical conception. Music composed for theatrical purposes obeys different laws than does the music for concert performance or conventional opera. Whereas in opera the music dictates the form in which the dramatic visual imagery is presented and governs its development, in other kinds of theatre the music is, at best, an equal partner among its principal elements. In concert, of course, the music is the sole factor that determines the experience.

Tonality and meaning

Tonality and meaning

The most troublesome problem not only for the untutored listener but also for the professional musician has been, in much contemporary work, the loss of explicit tonality; and this accounts for the tardy popular response to Schoenberg and his school: the vocabulary is esoteric. Nineteenth-century compositions did, indeed, stretch the tonal system to its outer limits; but it is now clear that Wagner and Richard Strauss, and even the early Schoenberg, had not broken from it. As for Debussy, his use of “exoticisms” was filigree upon a secure tonal base. So were such practices as the juxtaposition of keys by Stravinsky. This is not to say that the tonality of the Western world, fecund though it has been, is superior or more natural than other systems. Ethnomusicology and comparative musicology have proved this to be a parochial view, though there are still those who champion harmonic practices based on the physical laws governing overtones—as Western tonality is—as the only “natural” source of development. It should not be irrelevant, however, to inquire if any folk music has been discovered that exhibits atonal characteristics.

Tonality in Western music, though a significant aspect, cannot be considered the crux of musical meaning. The tone rows that are used in the 12-tone compositions of Schoenberg, like major–minor tonality in earlier music, are a technical substratum and must be no more explicit in the finished work than the chemical makeup of pigments in the “Mona Lisa.” The devices selected may affect the comprehensibility or accessibility of the work, but they are not, per se, the determinants of its worth or quality. Similarly with musical colour, or timbre; the 19th century produced a great profusion of compositions, particularly in the orchestral repertoire (e.g., works by Liszt and Berlioz) that exploited the unique sonorities of instruments; control of volume was, in itself, a rich source of colour. Works with literary or other extramusical associations were excellent vehicles for sonorous effects, but colour, like tonality, must be evaluated in musical context. Langer, among present-day aestheticians, regards words themselves as musical, rather than discursive, ingredients; they are “assimilated” by the song.

World View

World View and Music

Again, music proves its protean susceptibilities in the service of disparate world views. Among humanist psychologists (such as the Americans Gordon Allport and Abraham Maslow) music may be one among other means toward self-fulfillment, integration, self-actualization; for aesthetic Existentialists (such as the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre) it is yet another crucial department of choice and freedom; for spiritual Existentialists (such as the philosophers Karl Jaspers and Martin Buber) it transmits transcendent overtones. For expressionists (such as the composers Schoenberg, Ernst Krenek, and René Leibowitz) music carries austere, and sometimes doctrinaire, moral imperatives.Theodor Adorno, a composer–philosopher and pupil of Alban Berg, writes powerfully of these and speaks for an awareness of dazzling lucidity, but the tone, notwithstanding his humour, is one of obligation. Only the expressionists, among those mentioned here, are committed primarily to music, though Adorno, in particular, considers music and musicians always in interaction with their environments. The aesthetic concept of play is virtually absent, except among such humanists as Maslow. With Sartre, no less a humanist, the tone is one of responsibility. Many educators long held the explicit aim (at least in part because of a misinterpretation of John Dewey) of presenting the content of a discipline as “fun”; the present concern for aesthetic education, an area of great interest to Dewey himself, eschews this trivial view. But play, in the aesthetic sense, follows rules, as information theory has demonstrated; even “controlled aleatory” composition observes some limits. And the play may be very serious indeed, as in the important 20th-century atonal style known as"12-tone technique," practiced by the Viennese expressionists and their successors.

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The development of opera, oratorio, and the cantata gave a prominence to vocal music throughout the Baroque era (c. 1600–1750) that made it equal in importance to instrumental music, with which these forms were closely allied. But instrumental chamber and independent orchestral ensembles, as they exist today, also had their beginnings during this period. A highly significant development of the late 18th century was the definitive appearance of the modern sonata (whether in the form of the solo and duo sonata, piano trio, string quartet, concerto, or symphony) with the Viennese classicists Haydn and Mozart and, later, Beethoven.

Since a vocal text is likely to be confused with intrinsic musical meaning, or at least to divert attention from a preoccupation with it, it is not surprising that modern aesthetic theory followed on the emergence of an autonomous instrumental music requiring greater concentration on the sound itself, its colour and intensity, and the intelligibility (in terms of tonal organization alone) of a composition. Moreover, the very concept of listening as an attentive (and sometimes rigorous), serious, and necessary activity of the music lover gained acceptance only slowly, following the inauguration of public concerts, and is still vigorously resisted. The expectation that the art should provide enjoyment without effort is, indeed, widespread and accounts for much of the opposition to new and demanding idioms. But even for the well-disciplined and eager listener there is the problem of quantity: he must cope as best he can with what Langer has called “the madhouse of too much art.” If more effort is required, more discrimination is also needed. In music education, articulate voices ask that teaching be centred more upon qualitative aspects of the art (“aesthetic education”), less upon music making as an activity. This concern for musical value appears to reflect a more intensive search for meaning, which is not likely to be the exclusive property of a particular style or era; nor is it to be sought in an indiscriminate acceptance or rejection of novelty per se. A pronounced pedagogical interest developed in such contemporary popular music as "rock", “soul,” and similar folk idioms with great numbers of followers, especially among the young, whose gigantic festivals generated feelings of religious exaltation. The texts of the songs are highly emotional and often deal with “protest” themes; accompaniments are provided by guitars, keyboard and percussion instruments, and are electronically amplified. Music educators became attracted by the intrinsic structural values of this music, especially its distinctive rhythmic and modal characteristics, its texts, and the qualitative levels that may be distinguished. A music so vital and widespread, moreover, was deemed by many to be worth studying in school. The “rock” movement became a musical–sociological phenomenon of large proportions.

Considerations related to performance practice

Considerations related to performance practice

Listening to music for its own sake, apart from ritual or storytelling, is a recent historical development. There have always been impromptu song and dance; and performances of music in home, church, and theatrical productions have a long history. But there was no public opera house until 1637 when the first one opened in Venice; the first public concerts for which admission was charged appeared in London in 1672. During the next 50 years there were beginnings in Germany and France also, but the modern concert was not a significant feature of musical life until the late 18th century.

Of the forms that have characterized distinct periods of musical history, it is sufficient to remark here that the chief Renaissance forms—mass, motet, the polyphonic chanson, and madrigal—were allied to texts that strongly influenced their structure. Instrumental music was for the most part in the service of the voice, though instrumental church compositions, dances, and chansons arranged for organ were not uncommon. A strong alliance between voices and instruments has continued into the present, with musical theatre, the art song, and religious music. Instrumental music as a separate genre emerged in the 16th century, gaining considerable momentum in the 17th through a variety of idiomatic pieces. Increased attention to technical fluency was accompanied by greater complexity and sophistication in the instruments themselves. In response to stylistic demands for greater resonance and power, the modern forms of the violin appeared in the late 16th century, only gradually supplanting the earlier viols. The harpsichord did not finally yield to the pianoforte until the 18th century. The once-prevalent idea that early stringed and keyboard instruments were primitive precursors of their modern counterparts has been effectually demolished by research in medieval and Renaissance music and by dedicated performers, who seek to restore the sounds and spirit of those eras.

Information Theory

Information Theory

The French theorist Abraham Moles's Information Theory and Esthetic Perception (1966) brings the new science of information theory to bear on musical perception, emphasizing that the concept of form is the essential thing; the “sonic message,” whose dimensions vary from one composition to another, is a whole. Information theory thus proves to be a novel ally for organicists. The message, which is subjected to “atomistic” study of its components, is (thanks to recording) concrete; there is a temporal sonic material, a materia musica. Moles gives reinforcement to the aesthetic theory of distance:

The esthetic procedure of isolating sonic objects is analogous to the sculptor's or decorator's isolating a marble work against a black velvet draping: This procedure directs attention to it, alone and not as one element among many in a complex framework.

Information theory, which Leonard Meyer also discusses, begins its investigations without the help of traditional theory, which it finds to be untenable for its procedures. Musical messages discerned through information theory are not referential, yet Moles chooses to term the measurable elements in the sonic repertoire symbols: “each definable temporal stage represents a ‘symbol' analogous to a phoneme in language.” According to Moles, music must, as an art, obey rules; the role of aesthetics is to enumerate universally valid rules, not to perpetuate the arbitrary or merely traditional. He foresees experimentation with a much richer repertoire of sounds, transcending musical instruments and drawing on whatever sources—certainly electronic ones—are available for realizing the “most general orchestra.” A host of composers have set out to fulfill this desideratum. In order to increase the compass of possible sounds, various electronic synthesizers were constructed. In electronically synthesized music, the medium itself is indistinguishable from its message.

The quest for some distillation of musical meaning may be foredoomed to failure. Meanings, intrinsic and extrinsic, abound; meanings of all kinds, moreover, are revealed in and through the social setting. Church, theatre, and broadcasting affect music in characteristic ways. The modern concert is a device whereby formal, autonomous meanings are emphasized; further, the scope and available repertoire of the concert have been enormously increased through recordings, for any suitably equipped room may become, at the turn of a switch, a recital hall.

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Among contextualists, however, a simple referential view is the exception rather than the rule. Any theorist who examines musical perception is making a study of a complex human activity. He is dealing with the psychology of music, in which certain elements—e.g., music, listener, mode of apprehension, cultural context—are indispensable and in which characteristic processes recur. Specialists will emphasize one element or another: formalists the music itself, sociologists the listener and his milieu, psychologists the how of perception. Though psychology could survey the whole field, in practice psychologists, according to their persuasions, investigate the perception of measurable acoustic phenomena, the physical-mental effects of musical sound, or—more rarely—the functional role of music in human experience; and pragmatists and analysts alike may leave something out of account. But it remains for the comprehensive theorist, probably one who, like Langer, is equipped to discern relationships among many departments of thought, to construct a valid hierarchical structure of musical meaning in all its ramifications.

Deryck Cooke,a British musicologist and the author of The Language of Music (1959), who may be classified as a referential expressionist, has offered a sophisticated argument for the notion of music as language. Concepts, however, may not be rendered by this language, only feelings. Cooke reaffirms the possibility, long disputed by many theorists, that such feelings may be recognized, identified, and even classified. But he confines his investigation to the last few hundred years of the Western tradition.

Contextualist theories

Contextualist theories

In moving from symbolic to contextualist explanations of music, it is well to note that a source of great confusion, in the former, is the fact that tone painting (with explicit signals that yield, when the code is understood, designative meanings) is widely regarded as musical symbolism. An example of such tone painting is Bach's introduction of musical notes, corresponding to the letters of his own name, as a theme in the unfinished final fugue of the Art of the Fugue. And surely it may be argued that this qualifies on one level. But the contention that there is an intrinsic symbolism in the musical meaning itself is a claim that referentialists are generally unwilling to honour. Yet many theorists, whose concern is with the sociological or psychological effects of music, are not so much opposed to the idea of inner or profound meaning as indifferent to such meaning per se. Even an absolutist, however, is unable to examine music in isolation from its human environment. Meyer deliberately eschews logical and philosophical problems of music and makes “no attempt to decide whether music is a language or whether musical stimuli are signs or symbols.” (He does not defend the inference that such concerns are irrelevant to meaning.) Musical meaning and communication, he maintains, cannot exist in the absence of the cultural context. The statement is hardly open to dispute; a theorist is classified according to his proximity to the referential or nonreferential pole. If a referentialist emphasizes explicit aims and associations of a particular work (as in varieties of Gebrauchsmusik, or “utility” music, written for specific social or educational purposes), the formalist can maintain that there is also an intrinsic, or embodied, meaning to which he attaches the greater aesthetic value.

Symbolism contributions

Symbolism contributions

Significant contributions to musical theory have been made in the 20th century by several investigators who may be classified as symbolists, though most of them exhibit formalist, expressionist, and psychological elements as well. The most influential (and controversial) work has been done by Langer. Her most adamant critics (such as John Hospers) have objected to her use of the term symbol that must, in their lexica, stand for something definite; she takes pains to ascribe this more limited usage to the term signal. The more general use of the term symbol that she endorses has a long history, notably in such 19th-century figures as Goethe, Carlyle, and the French Symbolist poets. Langer is accused of having somewhat weakened her argument through a vacillating terminology, and she has described the musical symbol as “unconsummated” because of its ambiguity. But the validity of her theory does not depend upon the term symbol; her thought, indeed, has much in common with that of Edmund Gurney, who does not employ the term and whose “ideal motion,” if substituted for symbol, would remove most of her critics' objections. Her use of symbol is nevertheless defensible; she construes art as a “symbolic analogue of emotive life,” rendering the “forms of sentient being” into intelligible configurations. She is a naturalist; she sees art as organic in origin, and she echoes the view, long held among symbolists, that artistic form and content compose an indissoluble unity that each art manifests according to its peculiar conditions. The symbolism of music is therefore tonal (or, at its broadest, auditory) in character and can be realized only in time; in psychological experience, time assumes an ideal guise. (Painting and sculpture, in their distinctive modalities, embody ideal space.) Langer embraces all the arts in her purview. The U.S. musical theorist Gordon Epperson's The Musical Symbol (1967) is an application of her concepts, with modifications, intensively to music.

Intuition and intellect

Intuition and intellect

Most theorists agree that music is an auditory phenomenon and that hearing is the beginning of understanding. Beyond this there is little agreement. There is bad blood especially between proponents of intuition, like Benedetto Croce, and champions of intellectual cognition, like Hospers. Gurney was constrained to postulate a special musical faculty that need not reside exclusively either in the mind or the heart. The main problem for theorists arises from the inveterate tendency to dichotomize thought and feeling. Henri Bergson (1859–1941) broke with this tradition when he spoke for “an intellectual act of intuition.” Recently, a reawakened philosophic and artistic concern for the concept of organic unity has revealed strong affinities among such disparate works as Gurney's The Power of Sound (1880); the U.S. philosopher Susanne K. Langer's Philosophy in a New Key (1942) and her later works; John Dewey's classic Art as Experience (1934); and the U.S. composer Roger Sessions' The Musical Experience (1950).

It is apparent that music is connected in some way with the emotional life of man, but the “how” continues to be elusive. Sessions (echoing Aristotle) states the problem fairly:

No one denies that music arouses emotions, nor do most people deny that the values of music are both qualitatively and quantitatively connected with the emotions it arouses. Yet it is not easy to say just what this connection is.

It was long fashionable to speak of the “language” of music, or of music as the “language of the emotions,” but since a precise semantics is wanting in music, the analogy breaks down. Two or more listeners may derive very different “meanings” from the same piece of music, and since written and spoken language cannot render these musical “meanings,” whatever they may be, in consistent and commonly recognizable terms, verbal explication often seems to raise more questions than it settles. Philosophic analysts who hold that all meaning is capable of rendition in language therefore pronounce music—unless it can be saved by the referentialists—without meaning, confronting the thoughtful listener, thereby, with a proposition that seems clearly to contradict (and trivialize) his own experience. The difficulty, of course, is a semantic one and explains why some theorists substitute such terms as import, significance, pattern, or gestalt for meaning. Recognizing an incompatibility between the modalities of nonverbal arts and their treatment by discursive thought, it is hardly surprising that musical aestheticians have been few.

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If there is intrinsic, or embodied, meaning, one may well ask what meaning is embodied and how it is to be apprehended. An extreme formalist would say that the acoustic pattern itself and nothing more is the sense of music; Hanslick, indeed, said this, though he did not hold consistently to the view. But most nonreferentialists regard music as, in one way or another, emotionally meaningful or expressive. Referentialists, too, find expressive content in music, though this emotional content may be extramusical (even if not explicit) in origin, according to the American theorists John Hospers in Meaning and Truth in the Arts (1946) and Donald Ferguson in Music as Metaphor (1960). Meyer has made the observation that while most referentialists are expressionists, not all expressionists are referentialists. He makes the useful distinction between absolute expressionists and referential expressionists and identifies his own position as “formalist–absolute expressionist.” In acknowledging that music can and does express referential (designative) meanings as well as nonreferential ones, Meyer exhibits an eclectic and certainly permissive view. But he has been criticized for failing to make clear the modus operandi of this referential meaning in music.

Referentialists and nonreferentialists

Referentialists and nonreferentialists
Among those who seek and propound theories of musical meaning, the most persistent disagreement is between the referentialists (or “heteronomists”), who hold that music can and does refer to meanings outside itself, and the nonreferentialists (who are sometimes called formalists or absolutists), who maintain that the art is autonomous and “means itself.” The Austrian critic Eduard Hanslick, in his The Beautiful in Music (German edition published 1854), was a strong proponent of music as an art of intrinsic principles and ideas; yet even Hanslick, ardent formalist though he was, struggled with the problem of emotion in music. Hanslick's views have been classified as a modified heteronomous theory.
One looks in vain for an extremist of either persuasion, referentialist or nonreferentialist. Igor Stravinsky first achieved fame as a composer of ballet music, and his works throughout his career were rich in extramusical associations. It would be a comfortable simplification to ally referentialism with “program” music and nonreferentialism with “absolute” music. But the problem cannot be resolved by such a choice, if only, first of all, because extramusical referents can vary in complexity from a mere descriptive title to the convolutions of the Wagnerian leitmotiv, in which a particular musical phrase is consistently associated with a particular person, place, or thing. The referentialist does not require an explicit program (which may, when present, be altogether too meagre by his canons), and the nonreferentialist does not necessarily denigrate program music, though he makes a point of distinguishing between the extramusical program and the musical meaning. The contemporary U.S. theorist Leonard Meyer, in his Emotion and Meaning in Music (1956), speaks of “designative” and “embodied” meanings; he recognizes both kinds in music but appears to give equal weight to the extrinsic and intrinsic.

In contrast to Kant he accords a special efficacy to music:

In contrast to Kant he accords a special efficacy to music:
The effect of music is stronger, quicker, more necessary and infallible. Men have practiced music in all ages without being able to account for this; content to understand it directly, they renounce all claim to an abstract conception of this direct understanding itself.
Schopenhauer acknowledged a connection between human feeling and music, which “restores to us all the emotions of our inmost nature, but entirely without reality and far removed from their pain.” Music, which he is presenting an as analogue of the emotional life, is a copy or symbol of the will.

Nietzsche posed an Apollonian–Dionysian dichotomy, the former representing form and rationality and the latter drunkenness and ecstasy. For Nietzsche, music was the Dionysian art par excellence. In The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music, Nietzsche anticipated the 20th-century discovery that symbol making (whether in dreams, myth, or art) is a necessary and to some extent even automatic human activity. The rich suggestiveness and prescience of his insights embraced the concept of the “symbolical analogue”—the artistic function of ordering and heightening the ingredients of the actual world—and the polarities of experience symbolized in the Apollonian–Dionysian conflict itself, which Igor Stravinsky also explored. Nietzsche gave short shrift to mathematical aspects of music, and like Schopenhauer he deprecated blatantly programmatic music that abounds in obvious imitations of natural sounds. Discerning a power in music to create myths, he looked upon mere “tone painting” as the antithesis of its essential character.
Efforts of theorists to account for the universal appeal of music and to explain its effects have, since the 19th century, been various, contradictory, and highly controversial. In pointing out the chief points of view that have emerged, it must be emphasized that there are no completely isolated categories, and there is usually considerable overlapping; a single spokesman, the 19th-century English psychologist Edmund Gurney, for example, may incorporate formalist, symbolist, expressionist, and psychological elements, in varying proportions, to explain the phenomenon of music. Although some disagreements are more apparent than real because of the inherent problems of terminology and definition, diametrically opposing views are also held and tenaciously defended.